As part of the CallFront project, a two-day workshop dedicated to epigraphic practices on the frontiers of the Islamic world was organized at INHA by Maxime Durocher (Sorbonne), Saarthak Singh (École française d’Extrême-Orient, Paris) and Vincent Thérouin (Sorbonne). The event was structured in two parts: a roundtable exploring writing and engraving techniques, followed by a conference bringing together an interdisciplinary panel of archaeologists, historians, and art historians. The conference focused on epigraphic practices across different geographic areas, including the Indo-Persian world, Anatolia, the Balkans, the Black Sea shores and the Iberian Peninsula[1].
Writing, Inscribing, Carving – From Calligraphy to Epigraphy (January 22nd)

The goal of the roundtable was to complement the conventional scope of epigraphic inquiry, traditionally centered on questions such as “What do these inscriptions say?”, “Who produced them?”, by integrating a material and technical approach to epigraphs as artworks that asks “How were these inscriptions produced?”. To explore this, the panel aimed to revive ancient craftsmanship through an experimental approach, working in collaboration with master stonemason Thierry Grégor (Poitiers University), master calligrapher and PhD candidate in Art History Nuria Garcia Masip (Sorbonne), historian Elizabeth Lambourn (De Montfort University, Leicester), and archaeologist Maxime Durocher. This approach was enriched, a few weeks before the workshop, by a private visit to the Department of Islamic Art of the Louvre Museum, providing the team the opportunity to closely examine epigraphic steles[2]. The results of these initial investigations into the praxis of Islamic inscriptions were shared and discussed during the roundtable.

Presentations and Debates
Elizabeth Lambourn, a historian of South Asia and the Indian Ocean world, first discussed the corpus of marble steles produced for Muslim patrons in Khambhat, western India, between the 13th and 15th centuries[3]. She emphasized that at that time, the rarity of paper may have excluded the use of pounce patterns for transferring inscriptions onto hard stone. However, the exact techniques used by artisans remain unknown. Another fascinating aspect of her study concerns the polychromy of certain steles, which still bear traces of pigments, such as the “Lar mihrab”, despite the modern perception of them as entirely white.
Following, Nuria Garcia Masip presented the experiments done previously in the CallFront project on preparatory techniques on some Islamic steles. Indeed, one of the research hypotheses of the project is that inscriptions do not necessarily need to be designed on paper first but could be directly drawn on the stone by the calligrapher or scribe. Her findings revealed, for instance, that black ink was more difficult to erase than oxide-based inks. Additionally, using a soft reed or a flexible wooden qalam created sharp contours on marble, whereas brushes were unsuitable for achieving precise lines.
Lastly, Thierry Grégor focused on describing the tools used in stone carving (chisel, mallet, hammer, burin) and the techniques employed. By analyzing tool marks on stone, he identified specific instruments. For instance, the “V-shaped engraving,” present in the West since the Roman times, is also found in the Islamic world. However, terminological differences sometimes obscure the similarities in techniques; what is called “relief engraving” in the West is often termed “champlevé” in the Islamic world.
Key Issues Raised
These three presentations sparked numerous discussions, with recurring themes. One key topic concerned the transmission of models. In regions like Gujarat, where paper was not produced, could artisans still have used pouncing? Did these models circulate, as did the artists themselves? Were they perforated to facilitate design transfer, or was a grid system used to scale compositions? Some steles exhibit incised ruling lines that do not perfectly align with the letters, leading to questions about intentionality in their design.
Another major issue concerned the organization of labor and the status of artisans. Did calligraphers draft inscriptions on paper before handing them to stone carvers, or did the latter draw the calligraphy directly onto the stone? Was literacy in Arabic necessary for these artisans? This question also arises in Western contexts, where it remains unclear whether engravers understood the texts they executed. It is likely that work organization varied by period and region.
To address these questions, Maxime Durocher emphasized the importance of expanding research corpora. Elizabeth Lambourn suggested exploring the potential of artificial intelligence to identify specific engraving marks, opening new perspectives on artisanal techniques and work organization.

Finally, the roundtable concluded with a live demonstration, where Thierry Grégor carved out an Arabic inscription previously copied onto a marble slab by Nuria Garcia Masip. This hands-on session allowed participants to observe directly the gestures and tools involved in epigraphic production, enriching the discussion with practical insights.


Inscribing and Staging: Epigraphic Practices at the Frontiers of the Islamic World (January 23nd)
The objective of the second-day conference was to highlight previously unexplored epigraphic corpora by focusing on often-overlooked regions such as the Indo-Persian world, Anatolia, Crimea, the Balkans, and the Iberian Peninsula. The aim was to analyze the forms of Arabic script used on epigraphic supports and to explore variations in canonical styles as well as the development of regional styles.
The first paper was presented by Viola Allegranzi (Austrian Academy of Sciences, Vienna) and Martina Massullo (Louvre) on the topic Inscribing Curvilinear Scripts: Methodological Questions Raised by Two Afghan Corpora. The two scholars explored the evolution of epigraphic curvilinear script in Afghanistan from the 12th to the 17th century, highlighting the terminological challenges associated with these scripts. Long referred to as naskh or naskhī, these inscriptions were later grouped under the broader term “cursive”, before the expression “rounded script”became the standard today. Drawing on the forthcoming work of Alya Karame (OIB, Beyrouth) on Ghaznavid and Ghurid Qur’ans, Viola and Martina propose adopting the term “epigraphic rounded style”, which they consider more suited to the specificities of these inscriptions. Moreover, while these epigraphic scripts generally appear more restrained than Kufic inscriptions, they nevertheless underwent significant evolution in their layout. From the 12th century onwards, compositions grew increasingly intricate, with letters appearing to interlock with one another—an arrangement that the scholars suggest calling “nested composition”.

The second presentation was given by Saarthak Singh on the topic Epigraphic Practices in Sultanate India: Case Studies from Malwa, 14th-15th Centuries. While the decipherment of Arabic and Persian epigraphy in the Indian subcontinent has been going on for a long time, Saarthak focused specifically on contexts of epigraphic production and reception in the central Indian region of Malwa. Through the analysis of several key monuments, such as the Kamal-Maula Mosque (c.1310) and the Jami Masjid of Mandu (1454), he highlighted a variety of approaches to calligraphic composition and architectural placement of the inscriptions. Many of the inscriptions reveal stylistic similarities with chancery scripts, particularly those found in firmans, while others point to more canonical scripts used in manuscripts. One recurring characteristic is the pronounced elongation and rhythmic arrangement of vertical strokes, which appears to be a shared graphic convention. A few inscriptions are bilingual, with the Arabic and Persian text carved in relief and the Sanskrit text incised into stone, indicating a conscious juxtaposition of languages and alphabets.
The third and final presentation of the morning was delivered by Maxime Durocher on the topic Epigraphy and Calligraphy in Medieval Anatolia: Early Ottoman Inscriptions and Their Neighbors. This paper focused on inscriptions from the Beyliks in Western Anatolia and early Ottoman expansion (14th-15th century). Maxime discussed a little-known inscription from the Şehadet Cami in Bursa, dated 1337-1338, which attributes the construction of the mosque to Orhan, the second sultan of the Ottoman empire (1323/4-1362). What makes this inscription unique is the juxtaposition of two distinct calligraphic styles: muhaqqaq at the center and thuluth along the borders. This feature raises an underexplored question: the choice of script for different types of texts. Was thuluth primarily reserved for Qur’anic texts, while muhaqqaq was used for foundation inscriptions in this region? These Anatolian inscriptions also reveal close connections between Mamluk and Ottoman epigraphy, bringing attention to the mobility of artisans.
The first paper of the afternoon was presented by Nicole Kançal-Ferrari (Marmara University, Istanbul), on the topic Islamic Epigraphy in the Crimean Peninsula: Building Inscriptions and Calligraphic Material from the 14th to 15th Centuries. It examined foundation and dedicatory inscriptions found in Crimea. These inscriptions, primarily in Turkish but also in Persian, appear on various types of monuments, including mausoleums, fortresses, and even tombstones. This lesser-known corpus reflects a rich and dynamic intellectual life in the region at the time. Some letters seem to evoke calligraphic styles such as muhaqqaq and thuluth, yet they do not fully conform to them. Could they be considered regional variants of these scripts? Finally, this presentation raised a fundamental question about the legibility of these inscriptions: to what extent does formal appearance take precedence over content? For religious texts, it appears that recognizing just a single word was often enough for an observer to identify the entire inscription, suggesting a more symbolic than literal function of the script.

The penultimate presentation of the day was given by Vincent Thérouin on the topic Epigraphic Patronage in the Ottoman Balkans: Reflections on the Links Between Calligraphy and Patronage. This study focused on 15th-century epigraphic inscriptions that were for a long time overlooked and considered unaesthetic but hold significant historical importance. They provide evidence of the Ottoman presence in the Balkans even before the conquest of Constantinople. Vincent proposed rethinking the question of patronage and the funding of buildings bearing these inscriptions, emphasizing the role of waqfs in the Balkans. This perspective opens the way to a better understanding of foundation inscriptions that allows for an exploration of the social and economic contexts underlying their production and their relation to stylistic variations. It also raises the question of whether these inscriptions were sometimes used as a means of legitimization for patrons, linked to their status and their relationships with religious and political institutions.
The final presentation of the day was given by Julie Marquer (Université Lyon 2) and was titled At the Borders of al-Andalus: Arabic Monumental Epigraphy in Castile. She explored the integration of Almohad calligraphic traditions in Castile from the 13th century onwards. Epigraphy in Arabic script peaked in the 14th century, influenced by Andalusian artistic heritage. In the 15th century, inscriptions became rarer but more original, showcasing stylistic evolution. Notable examples include the Casa del Conde, where Romance text is written in Arabic script, and the Palacio de Gutierre de Cárdenas, where letters gradually morph into geometric shapes. Julie raised several fundamental questions: Who were the artisans responsible for these inscriptions—Muslims or Christians copying the letter forms without understanding their meaning? Were these inscriptions a manifestation of Castilian fascination with Arabic epigraphy? And by appropriating these cultural references, were they also a way to symbolically assert victory over formerly Muslim territories? Even though Arabic was no longer widely understood, it is possible that the value of these inscriptions lay less in their linguistic content and more in the visual and symbolic effect produced by the signs themselves.
Conclusion
This workshop highlighted several new research findings. First, it emphasized the need to gain a deeper understanding of epigraphic corpora in the regions at the frontiers of the Islamic world. The papers presented by Vincent Thérouin and Julie Marquer emphasized the importance of patronage and funding in the production of these inscriptions, showing how studying the contexts of patronage reveals the cultural and political stakes behind their creation.
The issue of circulation also emerged as a key theme. Contributions from Martina Massullo, Viola Allegranzi, Saarthak Singh, and Maxime Durocher demonstrated the crucial role of artisan mobility and model transmission in spreading epigraphic styles and techniques. The discussions also highlighted connections between monumental inscriptions and chancery scripts, both of which had to adapt to specific format constraints, as well as the links between inscriptions and manuscripts, which warrant further study.
Another essential topic was the original appearance of these inscriptions. The presentations given by Elizabeth Lambourn, Martina Massullo, and Viola Allegranzi revealed that many were originally polychrome, challenging our modern perceptions. Nicole Kançal-Ferrari also emphasized the need to explore the concepts of legibility and illegibility, which remain mainly underexplored in Islamic Art studies.
The workshop sparked discussions on praxis, particularly through the insights of Nuria Garcia Masip and Thierry Grégor. Did the craftsmen have formal calligraphic training? Did they rely on model books or develop their skills through motif repetition? What tools and methods did they use? These are crucial questions for future research.
Ultimately, these discussions align with a broader reflection on terminology and analytical categories. To better understand these inscriptions, it is essential to move beyond existing classifications and propose new frameworks. In this regard, the CallFront project and the development of a descriptive ontology offer promising avenues to move beyond rigid categories of traditional calligraphic styles and renew our approach to epigraphic practices.
Camille Grandpierre
[1]The program is available at the following links : https://callfront.hypotheses.org/7068
[2] The CallFront team wishes to thank to Farhad Kazemi and Martina Massullo for welcoming us in the Department of Islamic Art of the Louvre Museum.
[3]Experimental sessions organized by the CallFront team in 2022 focused on a series of specimens from Elizabeth Lambourn’s corpus : https://callfront.hypotheses.org/4331
OpenEdition vous propose de citer ce billet de la manière suivante :
callfront (22 mars 2025). Calligraphy and Inscriptions at the Frontiers of the Islamic World, international workshop, 22-23 January 2025. CallFront. Consulté le 23 janvier 2026 à l’adresse https://doi.org/10.58079/13juf