Ressources numériques en sciences humaines et sociales OpenEdition Nos plateformes OpenEdition Books OpenEdition Journals Hypothèses Calenda Bibliothèques OpenEdition Freemium Suivez-nous

International Workshop: Calligraphic practices from the Iberian Peninsula to West Africa

Between the 13th and the 17th of May 2024, CallFront hosted a week-long international workshop in Paris, focusing on calligraphic practices in the Iberian Peninsula, the Maghrib, and West Africa. This event brought together a panel of specialists in the field, who engaged with the scientific community of Paris and presented their work to a broader audience.

The workshop featured three major events, fostering the dialogue among scholars from diverse disciplines, such as History of Art, History, Paleography, and Anthropology. This interdisciplinary exchange enriched the CallFront corpus of scripts, and encouraged the advancement of research in these areas. Additionally, one of the goals of this workshop was to document some of the West African calligraphic traditions before they disappear, as they have in other regions.

West African manuscripts at the Bibliothèque nationale de France

The first event was held on May 14th at the Bibliothèque nationale de France, where the CallFront team was welcomed by Khalid Chakor Alami, in charge of the Persian and Arabic manuscript collections. This work session was led by Susana Molins Lliteras (University of Cape Town) and Mauro Nobili (University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign), who examined several West African manuscripts. The following manuscripts were given a particular attention: BnF Arabe 402[1], BnF Arabe 509[2], and BnF Arabe 6869[3].

Fig. 1 – Work session at the BnF – Photo: Chiara Tedesco

The first two manuscripts, BnF Arabe 402 and BnF Arabe 509, are composite Qur’ans, assembled from different fragments. Neither manuscript was bound in Africa: the first manuscript was, according to Khalid Chakor Alami, likely put together by the man who owned it, before it was acquired by the BnF. In contrast, BnF Arabe 509 bears a BnF binding. The practice of binding manuscripts upon arrival in Europe was explained by the two specialists, who noted that in West Africa manuscripts were traditionally kept as loose leaves. Mauro Nobili and Susana Molins Lliteras also observed that these manuscripts were copied by multiple scribes, even within homogenous fragments. This can be attributed to their loose-leaf nature, allowing for faster completion by having several scribes work simultaneously and easier substitution of parts as needed.

Fig. 2 – BnF Arabe 402 – Photo: Chiara Tedesco

            In BnF Arabe 402, the Qur’anic text was not assembled in a sequential order, and the variations among sections led to conclude that these manuscripts were assemblages of different Qur’ans. While the full understanding of this practice remains elusive, it is likely that the different Qur’anic fragments were assembled by Jean-Louis Asselin de Cherville, a collector who was accustomed to the bound manuscripts of the eastern lands. In contrast, BnF Arabe 509 exhibits several intriguing characteristics. Its colophon does not resemble those typical of West African manuscripts and appears to date back to before 1688. Considering that the oldest dated Qur’an from the region is around 1660, this manuscript stands as one of the oldest West African Qur’ans. Although its script presents some features typical of the Nigerian script, it is not of Nigerian origin. Unlike the highly codified Nigerian manuscript tradition, such codification is absent in this manuscript. Its dating is supported by paleographical observations made by Mauro Nobili. Additionally, the manuscript contains twenty-two illuminations, suggesting it may have had a talismanic use.

Fig. 3 – BnF Arabe 509  – Photo: Chiara Tedesco

            These manuscripts also contain marginal notes written in local languages, often serving as translations of the Qur’anic text. This observation led to significant questions: in West Africa, literacy in Arabic was limited, allowing scholars to ponder whether these manuscripts manifest a combination of written and oral traditions, involving specialists with different language skills. Notably, these annotations sometimes appear beside sections not typically meant to be annotated. Some notes directly address the reader, highlighting specific subjects. These annotations are crucial for understanding the social history, the valuation of manuscripts, and the role of copyists in society. It was also observed that the same manuscript often contains various scripts, including canonical ones, prompting questions about the relationship between these scripts and different calligraphic practices.

            Another issue discussed was the paper used in these manuscripts. Susana Molins Lliteras explained that most of these manuscripts were copied on European paper. Before 1850, this paper was handcrafted and of high quality but expensive. After 1850, industrial paper became prevalent, being cheaper but of lesser quality. The type of paper can assist in broadly dating the manuscripts. Evidence suggests that European paper was specifically manufactured for sale to Western Africa, where it was considered a valuable commodity.

The third manuscript examined, BnF Arabe 6869, constituted a different example. This Dalā’il al-khayrāt, a prayers book, is of significantly smaller sizeand is preserved in its satchel, composed by several nesting cases. This loose-leaf manuscript is finely illuminated with compositions of different natures, particularly geometric motifs and full-page compositions.

Fig. 4 –BnF Arabe 6869  – Photo: Camille Grandpierre
Fig. 5 – Work session at the BnF – Photo: Chiara Tedesco

These manuscripts allowed the scholars to explain some core notions.They also provided with insights into the local West African traditions of the region, raising numerous questions about their creation, assembly and uses, and focusing on the analysis of these scripts to address these inquires. Consequently, this work session presented an opportunity to explore the production and history of some West African manuscripts, focusing on the scripts employed, the languages, materials, and functions. It also served as an initial platform for scholars to discuss these topics and share their findings. Some issues raised remained central throughout the week, as they represent the focus of ongoing research.

Calligraphic traditions from Western Africa: a meeting with the master calligraphers

Fig. 6 – Introduction by Eloïse Brac de la Perrière – Photo: Sarah Lakhal

On the following day, May 15th, a significant event targeting a broader audience was held in the Jacqueline Lichtenstein auditorium of the Institut National d’Histoire de l’Art. The event focused on the praxis, which aims to reconstruct local practices through experimentation.

Nuria Garcia Masip (Sorbonne University) commenced the event with an introductory presentation on the art of calligraphy in Arabic script. She specifically discussed the canonical scripts, their tools and mediums, and the education of calligraphers, emphasizing the importance of the master and of the ijaza. She then explained that other calligraphic styles developed in frontier areas of the Islamicate world, where close contact with different cultures, sometimes using different scripts or writing systems, influenced these styles.

Susana Molins Lliteras (University of Cape Town) then provided an overview of the history and Islamization of the Saharan region, which began around 1000 CE. She detailed key aspects of the region’s Islamic manuscript culture, highlighting the benefits of its interaction with other languages. While primarily composed in Arabic, some manuscripts feature vernacular languages also written in Arabic script. These manuscripts, typically loose-leaf and made from European paper, were kept together using leather covers and satchels. In terms of calligraphy, the Western African lands exhibit distinctive features in the letters of the Arabic alphabet. Focusing on the manuscripts of Timbuktu, she recounted the fate of the manuscripts during and after the 2012/13 crisis, when many manuscripts originally held in Timbuktu were transported to Bamako. Some are being preserved and inventoried through a project at the University of Hamburg[4], and digitized by the HMML, although approximately ten thousand manuscripts of the state collection (IHERI-ABT) remain in Timbuktu, in addition to those of many smaller family collections.

Finally, Andrea Brigaglia (University of Naples), presented the scripts from the Central Sahel region[5],a vast areaof which Borno, in present-day Nigeria, is a historical hub of Islamic knowledge.He considered that despite the presence of various scripts in both Qur’anic and non-Qur’anic manuscripts in the region, they are likely variations of a single script as evidenced by consistent paleographical characteristics. Although there is no scholarly consensus, some believe this script may have originated from an ancient North African script that has since disappeared. If this theory is correct, this script developed very early and retains some of the most archaic features of Arabic scripts used anywhere.Among these scripts, the most classical and widely used is the Barnāwī, found as far afield as Timbuktu and Eastern Africa. Occasionally, the calligrapher’s name is inscribed, but this is rare.

 The second most important center of writing traditions in West Africa is Kano, also in Nigeria, where a script known as Kanawī developed. While the Barnāwī script is written using a straight, narrow pointed qalam, the Kanawī script employs a diagonal pointed one. The exact period when Kanawī became a distinct script is unknown, but it flourished with the advent of printing technology. Today, Borno is recognized as a center of tradition, whereas Kano is seen as a hub of experimentation, producing numerous printed copies.

This conference also paid tribute to two prominent West African calligraphers and scholars: Maḥmūd Muḥammad Dadab, better known as Sheikh Hamou, from Timbuktu, Mali, and Mohameden Ahmed Salem, from Nouakchott, Mauritania. Sheikh Hamou is an Islamic scholar, copyist, and calligrapher who emphasizes mastering calligraphy through repetition. He has copied thousands of manuscripts and manuals, trained numerous students and written on the history of manuscripts. Mohameden Ahmed Salem, also a master calligrapher and scholar, focuses his research on local calligraphic practices, aiming to preserve them. Although both were unable to attend the event due to travel restrictions, they participated by sending videos demonstrating their practice and explaining their techniques.

Fig. 7 & 8 – Presentations of Sheikh Hamou and Mohammeden Ahmed Salem– Photo: Sarah Lakhal

Exhibition of West African calligraphic artworks and tools

Following the conference, an exhibition was held in the Roberto Longhi room of INHA, showcasing several artifacts and tools graciously provided by the speakers. Visitors had the opportunity to view a variety of writing tools, such as qalams and ink pots, as well as three complete Qur’ans with their satchels. Additionally, several pieces of calligraphic artwork executed on leather and wood, representing prayers and poems, were displayed. These artworks and tools originated from Mali and Nigeria.

Fig. 9 – Roberto Longhi room of INHA – Photo: Chiara Tedesco
Fig. 10 – Calligraphic artwork – Photo: Chiara Tedesco
Fig. 11 – Calligraphic artwork – Photo: Chiara Tedesco

Conference: Calligraphic traditions from the Iberian Peninsula to West Africa

The workshop concluded on May 17th with a day-long conference titled “Calligraphic traditions from the Iberian Peninsula to West Africa”, featuring six speakers who presented their ongoing research on the topic. This event also served as a preparatory milestone for the international conference scheduled to be held in Paris at the end of 2025.

The morning sessions concentrated on Spain and the Maghrib, with three distinct presentations covering various topics. First, Umberto Bongianino discussed three families of scripts prevalent in the Maghrib between the 12th and 15th centuries: Qur’anic, chancery, and standard bookhands. His presentation aimed to demonstrate that the Maghrib was a center of calligraphic experimentation, engaged in dialogue with neighboring regions, rather than merely derivative of al-Andalus practices, as the current state of historiography presents it.

Next, Nuria de Castilla (EPHE), presented her ongoing research on a dozen manuscripts produced by Muslim communities in medieval and modern Spain, specifically Mudéjares and Moriscos. These manuscripts rarely include the name of the copyist, place, or date of copying—information crucial for understanding their production. Therefore, Nuria de Castilla proposes to reconstruct, date, and locate a “school” of copyists through the codicological and textual study of these manuscripts.

Finally, Lotfi Abdeljaoued, (Institut National du Patrimoine, Tunis), discussed the transition from Kufic to curvilinear script in Ifriqiyan inscriptions from the 11th to 13th centuries. He explained that until the end of the 11th century, Kufic was the only style used in Ifriqiyan inscriptions. The earliest known example of curvilinear style dates to 1000 CE[6], before a workshop was established in Kairouan in 1135 CE and the style became predominant with the arrival of the Almohad dynasty. Then, he focused his presentation on detecting the stages of the transition of these scripts from Kufic to curvilinear[7], preferring to focus on the identification of workshops, rather than looking for a date of apparition of the curvilinear style. He also examined how the technical difficulties can be part of the shift.

These interventions aimed to address key questions in the study of regional practices by examining historiographical biases and analyzing the scripts used in various documents. It became evident how codicological studies can enhance our understanding of manuscript creation and the transmission of practices. A recurring topic was the transition from one script to another, which was also exemplified through epigraphy.

Fig. 12 – Lotfi Abdeljaoued – Photo: Hêvi Saado

The afternoon presentations, on the other hand, focused on calligraphic practices in West Africa. Firstly, Andrea Brigaglia summarized the findings from his and Mauro Nobili’s decade-long research on West African scripts[8]. They argued that the term Sūdānī is inadequate to describe the diverse West African scripts and noted a continuity in the script of the Central Sahel. They proposed the existence of “Central Sudanic” script, declined into two variants: Barnāwī from Borno, and Kanawī from Kano. Revisiting the then-discarded hypothesis of Adrian H. Bivar from the 1960s[9], they suggested that these scripts developed independently from Maghribī. Brigaglia also introduced new insights on the scripts of Wadai in eastern Chad.

Following this, Mauro Nobili presented his research, demonstrating the complexity of the scripts of the region, which cannot be reduced to the so-called Sūdānī. Instead, he identified several local scripts: Suqī in the Eastern Niger Bend and Adrar-des-Ifoghas (Mali), Barnāwī in Nigeria, Chad, and northern Ghana, and Sarāwī in the Sahara west of Timbuktu. His presentation then focused on the unexplored scripts of the Middle Niger and Greater Senegambia, suggesting the development of two distinct styles in the region, of which he described the paleographical characteristics and proposed an area of localization.

Lastly, Susana Molins Lliteras discussed the perception of Timbuktu manuscripts as “derivative” or “mere” copies, due to their status as reproductions of works originally composed elsewhere. She argued that this practice of copying warrants further examination, but that the lack of dated copies constitutes a major problem. Specifically, she examined a corpus of copies of al-Jazūlī’s Dalā’il al-khayrāt, explaining that a copy of this manuscript is conserved in every library.

The presentations aimed to elucidate the scripts of West Africa, defining them through their paleographical characteristics. Current research enables a more precise characterization of these scripts, including their features, locations, and genealogies. Additionally, the social dimensions of these practices were explored, particularly what the practice and study of copying can reveal about calligraphic traditions.

Fig. 13 – Susana Molins Lliteras, Mauro Nobili and Andrea Brigaglia – Photo: Hêvi Saado

Fig. 14 – Exchange and debate – Photo: Sarah Lakhal

            This workshop represented the largest event organized within the CallFront project, aiming to engage a broader audience and present the project’s objectives and inquiries. This goal was successfully achieved and well-received. However, the primary focus of the event was scholarly exchange among experts from complementary disciplines and specializations, facilitating dialogue on these still little-known calligraphic practices. This interaction allowed scholars to address fundamental issues and present their ongoing research, which will be further developed in subsequent phases of the project. The workshop primarily focused on manuscript practices: to further understand calligraphy in the context of epigraphy, additional events are scheduled to commence in early 2025.

Chiara Tedesco


[1] Digitized at: https://portail.biblissima.fr/fr/ark:/43093/mdata992b0b0a742fd7fa648dc08acbc4c078e72fca9c

[2] Digitized at: https://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/btv1b11004290r

[3] Digitized at:  https://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/btv1b8406156n

[4] More information on the project can be found at the address: https://www.csmc.uni-hamburg.de/cultural-heritage/timbuktu-training.html

[5] The region spanning through today’s Nigeria, Niger, northern Cameroon and Chad.

[6] It is a fragment of a Khurasanid stele found in the al-Silsila cemetery in Tunis.

[7] He noted, however, that the Kufic script never fully disappeared, and that the region is characterized by multiple traditions.

[8] Particularly Brigaglia A., “Central Sudanic Arabic Scripts (Part 1): The Popularization of the Kanawī Script”, Islamic Africa, 2:2, 2011, pp. 51-85, and Brigaglia A., Nobili M., “Central Sudanic Arabic Scripts (Part 2): Barnāwī”, Islamic Africa, 4:2, 2013, pp. 195-223.

[9] Bivar, A. D. H., ‘The Arabic Calligraphy of West Africa”, African Language Review 7, pp. 3-15 (plates i-viii).


OpenEdition vous propose de citer ce billet de la manière suivante :
callfront (17 octobre 2024). International Workshop: Calligraphic practices from the Iberian Peninsula to West Africa. CallFront. Consulté le 10 décembre 2024 à l’adresse https://doi.org/10.58079/12ivm


Laisser un commentaire

Votre adresse e-mail ne sera pas publiée. Les champs obligatoires sont indiqués avec *

Ce site utilise Akismet pour réduire les indésirables. En savoir plus sur comment les données de vos commentaires sont utilisées.